We invite interested Hauri males, of whatever spelling, to have a yDNA test and share their results with us. The Hauri yDNA project uses Family Tree DNA, which will do the test, report the results, and notify us (with your permission). Family Tree DNA uses the lab of Dr. Michael Hammer at the University of Arizona, who has done pioneering work in the field of genetic genealogy.
We are looking for paternal descendants of the Swiss Hauris and German and French Haurys. Most Swiss and German Hauri and Haury men, as well as French Haurys from Alsace, should have the same y chromosome. A positive match would strengthen the evidence that all branches of this Hauri family have a common ancestor.
We are looking for paternal descendants of Hans Howry, the 18th century Mennonite immigrant to Pennsylvania. The results will help us confirm the close relationship between the Virginia and Pennsylvania Howry families.
We are looking for male members of Beromünster’s historic families (Baumli, Brandstetter, Dangel, Dolder, Ernst, Estermann, Frey, Herzog, Kopp, Lüthert, Maier, Röthelin, Schlee, Schumacher, Stauffer, Suter, Troxler, Vonarburg, and Weber). Some of those families probably belong to the same male line but adopted different surnames in the 13th century. The results could show whether the Hauris were one of a group of local families, or whether they came from elsewhere in Switzerland (such as Steffisburg or Jegenstorf) or Germany (such as Baden-Württemberg).
We are looking for male members of the Scottish (Orcadian) Horrie, Horry, Hourie, Houry and Howrie families. The results will show whether there is a relationship with the Swiss Hauri family. The Scottish and Swiss families probably belong to different male lineages.
We are looking for male members of the French (Béarnese) Haurie, Haury, Horry and Hourie families, including the South Carolina Horry family. The results will show whether there is a relationship with the Swiss Hauris. The French and Swiss families probably belong to different male lineages.
Testing is Easy
Testing is easy. When you join the Hauri DNA project, Family Tree DNA will send you a test kit. A DNA sample consists of human cells. A decade ago, DNA tests required a blood sample. Today, the most common method of taking a sample is to use a plastic swab to brush the inside of a person’s cheek. Some labs use mouth wash or chewing gum. The sample is then sent to the lab. You will be notified by email when your results are ready, typically just a few weeks.
Testing is Safe
DNA testing is different from both paternity testing and forensic testing. Insurance companies are prohibited by law from using genetic information to make health care decisions. Therefore, your STR and SNP test results cannot be used in any way other than you intend.
How to Join
You can join the Hauri DNA Project at Family Tree DNA. Current pricing (June 2020) is:
37-marker test $119
111-marker test $249
Big Y 700 $449
You should test as many markers as you can afford. The more markers you have tested, the higher the quality of the result. If you order a lower number of markers now, you can upgrade later. The 37-marker test is sufficient to confirm a connection to any of the Hauris already tested. A 111-marker test is the best option if you want to begin exploring the origins of your paternal line.
We need to re-visit the information on this page. It has been long superseded by additional research.
When surnames were adopted (about 1250-1300 in Switzerland), members of the same paternal line will have have adopted different surnames. So, the Swiss Hauris should be paternally related to dozens of other German and Swiss families with different surnames. DNA test results can reveal these connections.
Because genetic testing for genealogy is still in its infancy, most families do not have a yDNA project. So, we find only a few possible connections.
Hierholzer Family
The Swiss Hauris exactly match a southern German family, the Hierholzers, at 12 markers. This match suggests that the Hauris and Hierholzers share a common paternal origin. The Hierholzer family apparently originated in and took their name from the village of Hierholz in Waldshut, Freiburg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany, just across the border from Switzerland. Both the Hauris and the Hierholzers might have originated there, say about 1200.
Lehmann Family
DNA testing shows that the Swiss Hauris are relatively closely related to the Lehmann family. Both are members of subgroup L42. The early history of both families is speculative, but some genealogists in each family put their remote origin in Steffisburg (Berne). It is possible that the two families share a common origin there.
Other Swiss Families
The Hauris will be distantly related in the male line to local families with other surnames. If the Hauris were already an old family at Beromünster in 1300, they would have been paternally related to local families. On the other hand, if the Hauris came to Beromünster from Jegenstorf or Steffisburg about 1300, they should be paternally related to other families in those areas. We currently have no information that would connect us to any of those families.
The following list shows the villages where the Hauris lived or might have originated, and the families who were citizens of those villages before 1800 (Emil Meier, Familiennamenbuch der Schweiz (Zürich 1968-71)):
Note: This list shows the families who were citizens in each village. Therefore, it does not include every family that lived in the village.
The only DNA project for any of these families I have found to date is Joder of Steffisburg. The family belongs to Haplogroup I1c, so is not paternally related to the Swiss Hauris.
Other G2a Families
Continuing back in time, we can widen the search for distant cousins by looking for families with test results that are close to the Swiss Hauris. As a Germanic family in central Europe, the Hauris should have results similar to hundreds of other German and German-Swiss families with different surnames. Here, we are looking for geographic patterns over thousands of years, not genealogical origins.
The anonymous samples below are from the YHRD database. The named samples are largely from the ySearch and yBase databases. The Hierholzer sample is from the Family Tree DNA data, and the Jensen sample is from the Sorenson database. Family Tree DNA’s Recent Ethnic Origins database shows no exact matches for Hauri, but there is a Mexican family with a two-step mutation from the Hauris. Because of the nature of the database, no details are available. It seems possible that this Mexican family is descended from the Asturian family shown below.
The search for other families with similar test results has one significant caveat — because of a process called convergence, unrelated families can have the same or similar results. One way to avoid comparing apples and oranges is to compare only families that belong to the same haplogroup. The haplogroup of the Swiss Hauris is G2a, so a comparison of STR values is only significant if the other family is also known or predicted to be G2a. One of the most common examples of convergence is between G2a and I2b, two groups that often have very similar values. To minimize this problem, I have used Whit Athey’s Haplogroup Predictor to derive projections for families with an unknown haplogroup.
The numbers across the top of the table below (393, 390, etc.) are numbered locations (DYS) on the y chromosome. The numbers in the body of the chart show the number of times the pattern of nucleotides repeats at that location. The values shown in red indicate differences from the Swiss Hauris. Confirmed haplogroups are shown in green. Predicted haplogroups are shown in red. Remembering that mutations on the y chromosome take the form of adding repeats (alleles) at a particular location, and that the mutation rate is very slow, a single difference would put the common ancestor with the Hauris back some 50 generations.
Surname
Origin
Haplo
393
390
19/ 394
391
385a
385b
426
388
439
389-1
392
389-2
Distance
Hauri
Switzerland
G2a3b1b1
15
22
15
10
13
13
11
13
11
12
11
29
0/12
Hierholzer
Germany
G2a
15
22
15
10
13
13
11
13
11
12
11
29
0/12
Jensen
Denmark
G2a
15
22
15
10
13
13
11
13
11
12
11
29
0/12
anonymous
Budapest
G2a
15
21
15
10
13
13
–
–
–
12
10
29
2/9
anonymous
Lausanne
G2a
15
22
15
10
14
15
–
–
–
12
10
29
3/9
Lough
Germany
G2a
14
22
15
10
13
14
11
13
11
12
11
29
2/12
Hamman
Germany
G2a
14
22
15
10
13
14
11
13
11
12
11
30
3/12
Keasler
Germany
G2a
14
22
15
10
13
15
11
13
12
12
11
29
3/12
Latsha
Germany
G2a
14
22
15
10
14
15
11
13
11
12
11
29
3/12
Myers
Switzerland
G2a3b1
14
22
15
10
14
14
11
13
11
12
11
28
4/12
Weiss
Germany
G2a3b1
14
22
14
10
14
14
11
13
11
12
11
28
5/12
anonymous
Asturias
G2a
14
22
15
10
13
13
–
–
–
12
10
29
2/9
anonymous
Münich
G2a
14
22
15
10
13
13
–
–
–
13
10
29
3/9
anonymous
Latium
G2a
13
22
15
10
13
13
–
–
–
12
10
29
2/9
anonymous
Syria
G2a
13
22
15
10
–
–
11
13
12
13
11
29
3/10
Gaudet
France
G2a3b
13
22
15
10
13
14
11
13
11
13
11
30
4/12
The table above shows a clear geographic focus on central Europe (Germany, Switzerland, Hungary), with outlying matches in Latium (Italy) and Asturias (Spain). There are no similar results reported in Russia, which tends to disprove the assertion that the Hauris came to Switzerland from Russia in the 13th century. A simple theory would be that the Italian family put out branches in Spain and southern Germany, and that the Swiss Hauris, unknown Hungarian family, and the Danish Jensens are part of the German family. The reality is certainly much more complex, and the timescales involved span many thousands of years.
All male Hauris and Haurys in Switzerland, France and Germany, and their Howery, Howry and Howrey cousins in America, theoretically should have nearly identical y chromosomes, because they almost certainly belong to the same male line, originating in Beromünster, Switzerland in the early 1300s. There hasn’t been time for many mutations in our y chromosomes.
The Hauries in France, the Haurys in Poland, and the Howries in Scotland should have different y chromosomes, because they almost certainly originated independently. And, that’s what our results show.
Justin Howery and Fred Haury launched the Hauri yDNA project in October 2000, when they had yDNA tests. The results were surprising. They matched exactly on 12 out of 12 markers, proving that they belong to the same male lineage. Current genealogical research suggests they probably share a common male-line ancestor who lived about 1400, perhaps in Reinach, Aargau, Switzerland.
STR Tests
The initial results have since been supplemented with additional tests. The chart below shows the reported results as of March 2010.
Sample
Origin
Haplo
393
390
19/ 394
391
385a
385b
426
388
439
389-1
392
389-2
140
Switzerland
G2a3b1b1
15
22
15
10
13
13
11
13
11
12
11
29
152
Germany
G2a3b1b1
15
22
15
10
13
13
11
13
11
12
11
29
1799
Switzerland
G2a3b1b1
15
22
15
10
13
13
11
13
11
12
11
29
2522
Switzerland
G2a*
15
22
15
10
13
13
11
13
11
12
11
29
23374
Germany
G2a3b1b1
15
22
15
10
13
13
11
13
11
12
11
29
26560
France
R1b1b2*
13
21
14
11
12
15
12
12
12
14
13
30
92939
Unknown
I2a*
13
25
15
12
13
13
11
11
11
13
11
30
123506
Poland
E1b1b1*
13
24
13
9
16
17
11
12
13
13
11
31
Modal G2*
Central Europe
G2*
14
22
15
10
13
14
11
13
11
12
11
29
In the chart above, haplogroups in green show tested results. Haplogroups in red show predicted results.
The numbers across the top (393, 390, etc.) are numbered locations (DYS) on the y chromosome. The numbers in the body of the chart show the number of times the pattern of nucleotides repeats at that location.
* The modal G2 values are for the Central European Modal G2 Haplotype (as defined at ysearch.org). This haplotype is found primarily in Germany, Sweden and Finland. There are different G2 modal haplotypes for the Southern European, Eastern Britannic, Southern Britannic, Indian (Brahmin), and Arabic (al-Quraishi) groups.
Some participants have had extended tests for 25 markers and 67 markers. Additional data is available at Family Tree DNA.
Virginia Howerys and Howrys
Samples number 140, 1799 and 2522 in the chart above represent the Virginia Howerys and Howrys, descended from Jacob Howry, of Howrytown. This family has been traced to the hamlet of Ruedi in the Aargau, Switzerland. The family probably originated in Reinach. Jacob Howry, the immigrant, came to Pennsylvania in 1737. His descendant Jacob Howry founded Howrytown, Virginia about 1784.
Bavarian Haurys
Sample number 152 in the chart above represents the Bavarian Haurys, who claim descent from Jakob Haury, son of Hans Hauri the Woolweaver, a Mennonite refugee. He left Schöftland in the Aargau, Switzerland in the early 18th century, and settled in Bavaria in Germany. His descendants came to America in the mid-19th century. This result probably also represents the Mennonite Howrys in Pennsylvania. They claim descent from Hans and Ulrich Hauri, early immigrants to Pennsylvania, who were probably sons of Hans Hauri the Woolweaver.
German Howerys
Sample number 23374 in the chart above is a descendant of Rudolph Howery, who was born in Germany about 1842 and later came to America. His ancestry is unknown, but the test results show he belongs to the same male lineage as the Swiss Hauris.
French Haurys
Sample number 26560 in the chart above is a descendant of the Swiss family and has the Haury surname, but his line descends from a man in the 17th century who took his mother’s maiden name. As expected, his results show that he belongs to a separate male lineage. He has not had a haplogroup test, and his test results have not been predicted by Family Tree DNA. However, Whit Athey’s haplogroup predictor shows 100% probability he belongs to R1b. No matches have been found to other families.
Polish Haurys
Sample number 123506 is a Haury from a Polish family. Test results show that this family belongs to a separate male lineage from the Swiss Hauris, and even to a different haplogroup (E1b1b1). He is an exact match for an Ortega Salazar family, but no further information is available.
Other Howerys
Sample number 92939 in the chart above was thought to be a descendant of the Virginia Howerys, but his test result does not match. He belongs to a different male lineage from the Swiss Hauris, and even to a different haplogroup (I2a). The reason for the mismatch is not known. No matches have been found to other families.
What the Hauri Tests Tell Us
The test results show that the Virginia family, Bavarian family, and German family match on 12 of the 12 loci in the basic test. Therefore, they all belong to the same male lineage, and are all descended from a relatively recent common paternal ancestor, who probably lived after about 1250 to 1300, with a 50 percent chance that the ancestor lived after about 1550 to 1625. In short, the results confirm our genealogical research, which apparently shows that our common male ancestor lived about 1400.
Based on these results, these men almost certainly belong to the same male lineage. None of them are likely to have a “non-paternal event” (undiscovered adoption or illegitimacy) in the direct paternal line, unless that event involved another male Hauri. Genealogical research shows that the apparent male-line ancestors of the Bavarian and Virginia families have not lived in the same localities since at least 1700, so there is almost no chance that they are related paternally in any way other than the records show.
The mutation rate in the y chromosome is relatively slow. A single difference in results would indicate that the closest common ancestor probably lived 25 to 40 generations ago. However, because mutations are random, they can happen any time and even two brothers might have a difference at one locus. Therefore, we cannot be sure how long the Hauri y chromosome has remained unchanged or how long ago our common ancestor lived.
Statistically, the most likely estimate (MLE) for their most recent common ancestor (MRCA) is 15 generations ago. There is 50 percent probability that they share a common ancestor within the past 15 generations, and a 90 percent probability that they share a common ancestor within the past 50 generations. Genealogists typically estimate a generation as 25 to 30 years, so there is a 50 percent chance that their common ancestor lived within the past 375 to 450 years, and a 90 percent chance that their common ancestor lived within the past 1,250 to 1,500 years. Because they share the same surname, their common ancestor almost certainly lived after about 1250 to 1300, when the Swiss began to adopt surnames.
We will include information here about the families who do not match the Swiss Hauris as it becomes available.
SNP Tests
Members 140, 2522, 26560 and 92939 have had SNP tests, which confirm their haplogroups, both for themselves personally and for all their male-line cousins in the same lineage.
Members 140 and 2522 both tested positive for P15, a mutation that allows them (and by extension their Hauri cousins) to be classified as haplogroup G2a.
Member number 140 tested positive for the P303 mutation, showing that he (and by extension his Hauri cousins) belong to Haplogroup G2a3b2.
Member number 140 tested positive for the L43 and L42 mutations, showing that he (and by extension his Hauri cousins) belong to Haplogroup G2a3b1a2a1.
Dr. Rudolf Hauri-Bionda, a forensic scientist at the Institut für Rechtsmedizin at Universität Zürich-Irchel in Zürich, Switzerland, has agreed to be tested, probably in his own lab. We originally became aware of Dr. Hauri as a possible candidate for the Hauri yDNA project when he appeared as a forensic expert on a NOVA program about the Siberian Ice Maiden in 1998. Dr. Hauri’s ancestors belong the family at Reitnau in the Aargau, Switzerland. This family came from Staffelbach in the 16th century.
Widening the Search
See Related Families for information about the Hauris in a wider context.
Remembering high school biology, women have two x chromosomes, one inherited from the father and one from the mother. Men have an x chromosome inherited from the mother and a y chromosome inherited from the father. This difference comes about because each sperm contains either an x chromosome or a y chromosome, while each egg always contains an x chromosome. An xy combination makes a person male, while an xx combination makes a person female.
In simple terms, each man receives his y chromosome from his father, unchanged except for any mutations. So, a man’s yDNA will match his father and brothers exactly. His sisters will not have a y chromosome and cannot pass it on to their children.
yDNA Molecule
The y chromosome is a DNA molecule consisting of 78 genes. One of those genes is SRY, which causes an embryo to develop as a male. The y chromosome is composed of 58 million smaller units, called base pairs. Each base pair is composed of two nucleotides. There are only four possible nucleotides — adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G).
Each nucleotide has a complementary nucleotide. So, along the strand of DNA, adenine is always paired with thymine, and cytosine is always paired with guanine. Because each nucleotide can only appear with its complement, it is not necessary to report both sides of the chain. So, the DNA chain can be expressed as a chain of nucleotides, for example, GATCACAGGT…
DNA tests look at the non-coding region (“junk DNA”). This means the DNA in this part of the y chromosome doesn’t do anything. It doesn’t affect physical appearance or health. Because junk DNA is no longer used by the human body, mutations can accumulate without damage.
yDNA Mutations
Mutations on the y chromosome can take four forms:
Substitutions – the base pair at a particular location can change.
Deletions – the base pair at a particular location can be deleted.
Insertions – a new base pair can be inserted between existing locations.
Repeats – the number of repetitions of a pattern of base pairs at a particular location can increase or decrease.
The two most common yDNA tests are SNP tests and STR tests. Each type of test looks for different types of mutations. They give different information and are reported differently.
SNP Tests
A SNP test looks for the presence (or absence) of a particular substitution, insertion or deletion. (SNP stands for single-nucleotide polymorphism. It is pronounced snip.)
Men with the same SNP mutation belong to the same haplogroup. Geneticists correlated information about SNP mutations to create the human family tree.
The shorthand for SNP mutations uses a letter and number combination. The letter identifies the lab that discovered the mutation. The number is the order in which it was discovered. So, P303 is shorthand for a mutation discovered at Lab P (University of Arizona). It is number 303 in order of discovery. A man who tests positive has the mutation. He would be identified by the shorthand P303+. A man who doesn’t have the mutation would be P303-.
STR Tests
Y Chromosome Diagram
An STR test looks at certain locations on the y chromosome to find the number of times a particular string of base pairs repeats at that location. The repeats are called Short Tandem Repeats (STRs), or allelles, or just repeats.
Different male lineages have different numbers of repeats at different locations. The unique combination of different numbers of repeats at different locations is called a haplotype.
The shorthand for reporting STR tests uses a location number on the y chromosome plus the number of repetitions at that location. Locations have DYS numbers. (DYS stands for DNA Y-chromosome Segment.) So, for example, the test results might show a value of 7 at DYS 393. This result means that the place on the y chromosome that has been designated DYS 393 has 7 repeats of whatever pattern is present at that location. (The particular pattern doesn’t matter and isn’t usually mentioned.)
Comparing the Tests
Genetic tests for genealogy typically focus on STR tests, supplemented by SNP tests. Both types of mutations accumulate slowly, but SNP tests usually reveal a common ancestor thousands or even tens of thousands of years ago. On the other hand, STR tests can show a common ancestor within a thousand years, or even a few hundred years.
SNP mutations are rare, so we can be sure all men whose y chromosome contains a particular SNP are male-line descendants of a single ancestor who originally had that mutation. But, because they are rare the common ancestor might have lived some time in the very distant past.
STR mutations are less rare. To maximize results, geneticists test locations on the y chromosome that have a high mutation rate. When comparing two men, a single difference probably indicates their common ancestor lived about 25 to 40 generations ago. Two men with the same surname and same haplotype are almost certainly both descended from a man who adopted that surname.
However, because mutations are random, they can happen any time. Even two brothers might have a difference. A family group of grandfather, father, uncles, brothers and cousins might all have 7 repeats at DYS-393, but one brother might have 8 — he has had a mutation that increases the number of repeats. His descendants will all have 8 repeats at DYS-393.
In genealogy, the testing objective is often to find out whether two men who share a common surname are likely to have a common ancestor within the past thousand years. Therefore, STR tests are usually more valuable for genealogists, while SNP tests are more valuable for anthropologists. However, when STR tests are ambiguous because of convergence an SNP test might solve the problem.
Convergence
Two men with the same STR haplotype might be related, but the result might be chance. The number of men who share the same haplotype is much smaller than the number of men with the same SNP haplogroup. If the men have the same surname, they are almost certainly relative. But, if they have different surnames, the match might be the result of convergence — unrelated lineages can develop the same combination of STR markers independently. In these cases, more testing will show the problem. Testing more STR locations might show that the two men do not actually have the same haplotype, or an SNP test might show that they actually belong to different haplogroups.
All living men have inherited their y chromosome from Genetic Adam, along with the mutations that have accumulated in their individual family lines. Geneticists can test for these accumulated mutations. By analyzing the mutations present in modern men, geneticists can group them. Individual test results show a man’s haplotype. Men with the same haplotype are likely to belong to the same family.
A haplogroup consists of all the male-line descendants of an ancestor who had a particular SNP mutation in his y chromosome. These haplogroup founders typically lived before the adoption of surnames, and passed on the mutation to all their descendants in the male line. Men in the same haplogroup share a common ancestor, usually thousands, or tens of thousands, years ago.
Geneticists currently recognize 20 haplogroups, each designated with a capital letter between A and T. Subgroups within each haplogroup are represented by numbers and further subgroups by lower case letters. For example, five men in haplogroup G might belong to five different subgroups: G*, G1, G2, G2a and G2b. The G* man belongs to haplogroup G, but not to any known subgroup. G1 and G2 are subgroups of G. G2a and G2b are subgroups of G2.
New mutations are being discovered so rapidly, and the haplogroup tree has changed so often, some sources prefer to use a shorthand that combines the Haplogroup with the SNP code. For example, G-P303 indicates a member of Haplogroup G who carries the P303 mutation, the mutation that defines G2a2b2a in the current (2018) ISOGG tree.
Haplogroups are useful for tracing population movements because, unlike mtDNA, yDNA haplogroup dispersal is “highly non-random”. That is, yDNA haplogroups are concentrated in certain geographic areas, even though there is no area where the entire population belongs to the same haplogroup. Therefore, geneticists can use modern haplogroup dispersal to trace population movements in pre-historic times.
The nine most common haplogroups in Europe are E1b1b, G, I1 (M253), I2a (P37.2), I2b1 (M223), J2, N3, R1a, and R1b. The old European haplogroups (R1a, R1b and I) account for 80 percent of the present European population. Incoming haplogroups from the Middle East (E1b1b, G, J2 and N) account for the other 20 percent.
European Haplogroups (Source: Wikipedia)
As a general rule of thumb: R1b = Western Europe, R1a = Eastern Europe, I = Nordic, G = Middle Eastern, J2 & E1b1 = Semitic, and Q3 = Native American.
Hauri Haplogroups
Members of the Hauri yDNA project belong to the following haplogroups:
Haplogroup E1b1b1* (E-M35) – a Semitic group
Haplogroup G2a3b (G-P303) – an non-Semitic, Middle Eastern group
Haplogroup I2a (I-P37.2) – a Nordic group
Haplogroup R1b1b2 (R-M269) – a Western European group
Haplogroup R1b1b2a1a4 (R-L48) – a Western European group
From these results we see that not all Hauris belong to the same male lineage. In fact, it is virtually certain that eventually we will find members in many other haplogroups.
All modern humans descend in the male line from a particular man, nicknamed “Genetic Adam,” who lived about 60,000 years ago. All living men have inherited his y chromosome (yDNA), along with the mutations that have accumulated in our individual family lines.
Geneticists can test for these accumulated mutations. Individual test results show a man’s haplotype. Groups of similar haplotypes form a haplogroup.
Technically, a haplogroup consists of all the male-line descendants of an ancestor who had a particular SNP mutation in his y chromosome. Geneticists currently recognize 18 haplogroups, each designated with a capital letter between A and R. In addition, subgroups within each haplogroup are represented by numbers and further subgroups by letters. For example, G, G1, G1a and G1b, where G is the haplogroup, 1 is a subgroup, and a and b are further subgroups. G* represents a man who belongs to haplogroup G but not to one of the defined subgroups.
Haplogroups are genetic groups that share a distant male ancestor who lived before the adoption of surnames. They are identified by particular mutations that the founding ancestor passed on to all his descendants in the male line.
Humans exhibit less mtDNA and yDNA diversity than expected, far less than our closest primate cousins, the chimpanzees. Some scientists believe that humans nearly became extinct about 70,000 years ago (~2,800 generations) when the Toba supervolcano erupted in Indonesia, triggering an environmental catastrophe. According to this theory, the human population might have been reduced to a few thousand people, perhaps as few as 1,000.
An article in Science magazine (2000) estimated that 80% of European men share a common ancestor, who lived as a primitive hunter some 40,000 years ago. He was one of the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) people who first migrated to Europe, probably from Central Asia and the Middle East, in two waves of migration beginning about 40,000 years ago. Their numbers were small and they lived by hunting animals and gathering plant food. They used crudely sharpened stones and fire.
When the last ice age began, about 24,000 years ago, the Paleolithic Europeans retreated to Spain, the Balkans and the Ukraine, where they lived for hundreds of generations. When the glaciers melted, about 16,000 years ago, these three groups spread out through Europe. The male-line descendants of the group that lived in Spain are now most common in northwest Europe, those from the Ukraine are primarily in Eastern Europe, and those from the Balkans are most common in Central Europe.
During the Neolithic (New Stone Age) era, about 8,000 years ago, another wave of migration, this time from the Middle East, brought agriculture to Europe. About 20 percent of modern Europeans have a y chromosome that shows they descend from this Neolithic migration.
Unlike mtDNA, yDNA haplogroup dispersal is “highly non-random”. That is, yDNA haplogroups are concentrated in certain geographic areas, even though there is no area where the entire population belongs to the same haplogroup. Therefore, geneticists can use modern haplogroup dispersal to trace population movements in pre-historic time.
Source: Family Tree DNA
Haplogroup B: This lineage is one of the oldest y-chromosome lineages in humans. It s found exclusively in Africa. This lineage was the first to disperse around Africa. Archaeological evidence suggests a major population expansion in Africa approximately 90-130,000 years ago. It has been suggested that this event might have spread Haplogroup B throughout Africa. Haplogroup B appears at low frequency all over Africa, but is at its highest frequency in Pygmy populations.
Haplogroup C: This lineage originated about 50,000 years ago, shortly after humans left Africa. It is found throughout mainland Asia and the south Pacific, and at low frequency in Native American populations. This lineage colonized New Guinea, Australia, and northern Asia. It is currently found with its highest diversity in populations of India. Genghis Khan seems to have been a member of this haplogroup. The C3 subgroup is believed to have originated in southeast or central Asia. It spread into northern Asia, then into the Americas.
Haplogroup D: This lineage probably originated in Japan. It is completely restricted to Japan, and is a very diverse lineage among the aboriginal Japanese and the Japanese population around Okinawa.
Haplogroup E: This lineage probably originated in northeastern Africa based on the concentration and variety of E subclades in that area today. But the fact that Haplogroup E is closely linked with Haplogroup D, which is not found in Africa, leaves open the possibility that E first arose in the Near or Middle East and was carried into Africa by a back migration. E1b1a is the most common lineage among African Americans. E1b1b1 probably evolved either in northeastern Africa or the Near East and then expanded to the west, both north and south of the Mediterranean Sea. E1b1b1 clusters are seen today in western Europe, southeasten Europe, the Near East, northeastern Africa and northwestern Africa. William Harvey, who discovered the principle of blood circulation belonged to E1b1b1, as Wilbur and Orville Wright. The Polish Haurys are E1b1b1.
Haplogroup G: This lineage probably originated in Anatolia (Asia Minor). It has dispersed into central Asia, Europe, and the Middle East. It is most common in the Caucasus region, especially the Republic of Georgia where it approaches 30% of the population. In Turkey it is found in some 10% of the population. The G2 branch of this lineage is found most often in Europe and the Middle East. In Europe, haplogroup G accounts for 1-2% of the population with a gradient from southeast (most common) to northwest (least common). Haplogroup G, along with Haplogroups J and E3b, is thought to be a marker for the spread of farmers from the Middle East into Europe 6,000-8,000 years ago. In Italy, it accounts for some 10% of population, and is especially concentrated in Lombardy. It diffuses north into Switzerland and Germany, with another concentration in the Austrian Tirol. In Scandinavia, it accounts for only 1-3% of the population. Russian dictator Joseph Stalin belonged to haplogroup G2a1. The Swiss Hauris belong to haplogroup G2a4.
Haplogroup H: This lineage is believed to have originated in India between 20,000 and 30,000 years ago. It seems to represent the indigenous paleolithic inhabitants of India, because it is the most frequent among tribal populations, but rare among the higher castes. This haplogroup is almost completely restricted to India, Sri Lanka and Pakistan. It is also common among the Roma (Gypsies).
Haplogroup I: This lineage is almost entirely confined to Europe, where it accounts for about 20% of the population. Semino et al. believe that Haplogroup I stems from the Gravettian culture, which arrived in Europe from the Middle East about 20-25,000 years ago. The Gravettian culture was “known for its Venus figurines, shell jewelery, and for using mammoth bones to build homes.” There are two main branches of Haplgroup I:
Haplogroup I1: This lineage has highest frequency in Scandinavia, Iceland, and northwest Europe. One lineage of this group extends down into central Europe, probably as a result of the barbarian invasions during the late Roman Empire. There are smaller concentrations on the coasts of northwestern Europe. Haplogroup I1 has been called the Viking group. Its distribution along the coasts of northwestern Europe probably reflects Viking raids and settlements in the 8th and 9th centuries.
Haplogroup I2: appears to have originated in the Balkans, perhaps from a glacial refugium there; I2a is very common in Croatia and Bosnia today and decreases in frequency across Eastern Europe. A rare offshoot branch of I2a is also found further West, including in the British Isles. Another subgroup of I2a is by far the most common lineage in Sardinia, but it is also found at low frequencies in France and Spain. A Howery family of unknown origin belongs to I2a.
Haplogroup J: This lineage is found at highest frequencies in Middle Eastern and north African populations, where it probably evolved. This marker has been carried by Middle Eastern traders into Europe, central Asia, India and Pakistan.
Haplogroup J2: This lineage originated in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. It later spread throughout central Asia and the Mediterranean, and south into India. As with other populations with Mediterranean ancestry, this lineage is found within Jewish populations.
Haplogroup K: his lineage first appeared about 40,000 years ago in Iran or southern central Asia.
Haplogroup N: This lineage is distributed throughout northern Eurasia. It is the most common y chromosome type among Uralic speakers (Finns and Hungarians). This lineage probably originated in northern China or Mongolia, then spread into Siberia where it became a very common line in western Siberia.
Haplogroup N3: One study in Hungary found that 12% of the male population today belongs to this haplogroup. It is found most in the region of Asia where the Huns are supposed to have originated, and where the language is still similar to theirs. The Huns invaded Europe in historic times. The other 88% of Hungarians descend mainly from the inhabitants of the former Roman province of Pannonia, which, once conquered, took on the new language.
Haplogroup O1: This lineage is found at very high frequency among the aboriginal Taiwanese (possibly due to genetic drift). It probably originated in eastern Asia and later migrated into the south Pacific. Individuals carrying this lineage are thought to have been important in the expansion of the Austronesian language group into Taiwan, Indonesia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia.
Haplogroup Q: This lineage is found in Asia and the Americas. It is found in north and central Asian populations as well as native Americans. This lineage is believed to have originated in central Asia and migrated through the Altai/Baikal region of northern Eurasia into the Americas.
Haplogroup Q3: This lineage is the only lineage strictly associated with indigenous American populations. The mutation that defines it occurred in the Q lineage 8-12,000 years ago as the migration into the Americas was underway. There is some debate about the side of the Bering Strait on which this mutation occurred, but it definitely happened among the ancestors of the Native American people.
Haplogroup R.
Haplogroup R1a: This lineage is believed to have originated in the Eurasian steppes north of the Black and Caspian Seas, perhaps in a population of the Kurgan culture. The Kurgans were known for the domestication of the horse (approximately 3000 BCE). They are believed to have been the first speakers of an Indo-European language. This lineage is currently found in central and western Asia, in India, and in the Slavic populations of eastern Europe. Somerled, who defeated the vikings and established a kingdom in the Hebrides, was a member of this haplogroup.
Haplogroup R1b: This lineage is the most common haplogroup in European populations. It is found in about 90% of Basques, 80% of Irish and Welsh, 70% of Scots, 60% of English, 50% of French, 50% of Germans, but only 25% of Norwegians and 1% of Syrians. It is believed to represent the main pre-Ice Age population of western Europe, which expanded throughout Europe as humans re-colonized after the last Ice Age 10-12,000 years ago. Studies on Scottish and Irish families have shown that Colla Uais and Niall of the Nine Hostages, the putative ancestors of many clans and septs, were probably members of this haplogroup.
Haplogroup T: Thomas Jefferson was a member of this lineage. Descendants of his paternal uncle Field Jefferson were tested as part of a project to verify the paternity of the children of Thomas Jefferson’s mistress, Sally Hemmings.
As a general rule: R1b = Western Europe, R1a = Eastern Europe, I = Nordic, G = Indo-Aryan, J2 & E3b = Semitic, and Q3 = Native American.
Test results so far show that the majority of Hauris and Haurys from Switzerland and southern Germany belong to Haplogroup G2a.
Haplogroup G is defined by a mutation at M201. The first man to have the M201 mutation is thought to have lived about 30 thousand years ago (~1,200 generations), probably south of the Caucasus mountains and perhaps near Lake Van, but perhaps along the eastern edge of the Middle East or as far east as the Himalayan foothills in Pakistan or India.
The founder of Haplogroup G has had relatively few descendants compared to the founders of other haplogroups.
Distribution
Haplogroup G has its greatest modern concentration and diversity near the Caucasus Mountains (which it why it is thought to have originated there). Haplogroup G includes about 60 percent of Ossetians; 30 percent of Georgians, Kabardinians and Balkarians; and lesser percentages in Azerbaijan (18 percent) and Armenia (11 percent) .
Members of Haplogroup G dispersed into central Asia, the Middle East and Europe. Those that went north have descendants in Russia (Adygeans), Uzbekistan (Tartars and Karakalpaks), Mongolia, and western China (Uygurs). Some went east into China, Indonesia, Taiwan, the Philippines, and the Polynesian Islands, but most of those moved back into the Middle East.
Haplogroup G is one of the significant indigenous populations of the ancient Middle East. G is well represented there today — Israeli Jews (9.8 percent), Turkey (9.2 percent), Egypt (9 percent), Palestine (8.9 percent), Lebanon (6 percent), Jordan (5.5 percent), Syria (4.8 percent), and Saudi Arabia (4.5 percent). It was probably one of the founding populations of the ancient Hebrews, perhaps 20 percent of the total. Today, about 10 percent of Jews, both Ashkenazim and Sephardim, belong to Haplogroup G.
Those that went west and north are represented today in Europe. In Europe Haplogroup G, along with Haplogroups J and E3b, is thought to be a marker for the spread of farming from the Middle East 6 to 8 thousand years ago (~240 to ~320 generations). Farming originated in the Middle East about 10 thousand years ago (~400 generations). As populations expanded, farmers began moving out of the Middle East, through the islands and along the shores of the Mediterranean, through Turkey and into the Balkans and the Caucasus mountains. It was once thought that advancing farmers displaced or eliminated the hunter-gatherers of Europe. However the DNA studies have shown that the spread of agriculture involved the movement of some people into Europe who had not been there before.
An hypothesis that gaining popularity is that these same people might have introduced the Indo-European language into northern India, the Middle East and Europe. Indo-European is the parent language for Greek, Latin, Sanskrit and Germanic, hence of most of the other languages of the northern India, the Middle East and Europe. There have been many attempts to identify the original Indo-European homeland, but it is now thought to have been the Sredy Stog culture in what is now eastern Ukraine.
Only about 1 to 3 percent of modern Europeans are in Haplogroup G, with a gradient from southeast (most common) to northwest (least common). There are concentrations in Sardinia (14 percent), Ibiza (13 percent), Corsica (11.8 percent), Crete (10.9 percent), north central Italy (10 percent), northeastern Spain (8.3 percent), Malta (8 percent), Portugal (7.3 percent), the Austrian Tirol (7 percent), and the Czech Republic (5.1 percent). The Mediterranean concentrations might indicate settlements by the Phoenicians and the Carthaginian empire. Haplogroup G was probably spread by the Romans, both by the recruiting of soldiers and the movement of merchants. Its modern distribution in Europe appears to track closely the boundaries of the Roman empire.
One of the — probably ancient — divisions within Haplogroup G is between those who have 13 repeats at DYS388, and those who have 12 repeats. European men are more likely to have 13, while Middle Eastern men are more likely to have 12. There are exceptions, however. Some Iranian men, those just south of the Caspian Sea, are more similar to men south of the Caucasus Mountains (Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan) than to other Iranians. In addition, there are many indications that some Iranians have a closer relationship to Welshmen, Englishmen, Swiss and southern Germans than to Turks, Russians and Ossetians. Such results suggest ancient migration patterns.
Haplogroup G2
Haplogroup G2 is defined by a mutation at P287. It seems to have originated in Anatolia (modern Turkey), but the date is uncertain. Today, G2 is found most often in Europe and the Middle East. There is a concentration of this haplogroup in central Italy, diffusing north into the Swiss Alps. This group is very likely descendants of the Etruscans.
G2 has three subgroups, G2a, G2b and G2c, defined by mutations at P16, M287 and M377, respectively. M287 is based on a single sample from Turkey, and no longer meets the criteria for its own haplogroup. It is expected to be eliminated. G2c is composed almost entirely of Ashkenazic Jews.
Haplogroup G2a
Haplogroup G2a is defined by a mutation at P15. It seems to have originated in the Caucasus, but the date is uncertain. G2a has a subgroup G2a1 that has additional mutations at P17 and P18.
Haplogroup G2a3
(no information available)
Haplogroup G2a3b1
Haplogroup G2a3b1 is defined by a mutation at P303. This group includes the majority of European men in Haplogroup G. The founder is thought to have lived perhaps 5 thousand years ago, probably somewhere in the Middle East, perhaps Turkey or Iran. Its major subgroups are thought to have split off perhaps 4 thousand years ago, and spread to Europe between 1,500 and 2,500 years ago.
For many years it was widely believed that this mutation was a marker for Sarmatian soldiers serving in the Roman legions near Hadrian’s Wall in Britain. When it became evident there was also a significant concentration of the same group on the continent, the mutation was attributed to the Alans, a barbarian tribe that entered Europe in the 5th century, first as Roman soldiers and later as allies of the Visigoths. However, within the past few years, testing in the Sarmatian and Alan homeland near the Caucasus Mountains has shown no close matches to European men in the same group.
It is now clear the evidence does not support an Alan or Sarmatian origin. Instead, this group might have been brought to Europe by merchants, perhaps the Jewish Radhanites. The theory is controversial. There is another subgroup of P303 that includes a large numbers of Ashkenazi Jews. This subgroup has its greatest European concentration on the island of Ibiza, which is known to have had a significant population of crypto-Jews. However, there no evidence that the group as a whole was ever anything more specific than Middle Eastern indigenes.
Haplogroup G2a3b1b1
Haplogroup G2a3b1b1 is defined by mutations at L42/S146 and L43/S147. These mutations were first discovered in a genetic sample from Justin (Howery) Swanström, tested at 23andme. Family Tree DNA subsequently developed a commercial test. About 30 percent of DYS-388=13 men who have tested for the L42 marker are positive. They have widely divergent marker values, indicating that this is a very old SNP (Banks, Y-DNA-Haplogroup-G-L, 5/27/09). It now appears that a quarter of G2 men from Switzerland are probably members of this group.
These mutations seem to be nearly as ancient as P303, perhaps 4,500 years old. However, L42 might be as recent as 2,500 years. Taken together, the two mutations are probably a marker for the ancient populations of Etruria and Rhaetia.
The Swiss Hauris belong to Haplogroup G23ab1b1 (G-L43/S147).
Etruscans
The Etruscans were a non-Indo-European people in what is now Italy. Their origin is a mystery; they were not related to any of their neighbors. Their very sophisticated urban culture pre-dated the rise of Rome. They emerged about 800 BCE in Tuscany and the Po river valley, and dominated northern Italy until they were assimilated by the Romans in the first century BCE.
The origin of the Etruscans is controversial. In the fifth century BCE the Greek historian Herodotus believed the ancestors of the Etruscans originated with a colony of Lydians from Anatolia (Turkey). (Herodotus, The Histories (c. 430 BCE), 1.94). Other ancient historians had other theories. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus (1st century BCE), the Etruscans were indigenous to Italy.
Distribution of Haplogroup G2a (Source: Eupedia)
Herodotus’ claim of a Lydian origin has been controversial from the beginning, but is supported now by genetic studies. Several studies have used the higher incidence of Haplogroup G in Tuscany to support the theory of an Anatolian origin. Studies of mtDNA in modern Tuscans and ancient Etruscans also indicate an origin in the Near East. Archaeology and DNA studies of Tuscan cattle breeds suggests the Etruscans arrived in Italy about 1200 BCE.
In the map at right, we see the heaviest concentration of G2 in the Caucasus region. Also note the concentrations in ancient Anatolia (modern Turkey), in central Italy, and in ancient Rhaetia north of Italy. In the map below, we see the extent of Etruscan civilization.
Etruscan civilization
Rhaetians
The Rhaetians were a tribal people, north of the Alps, who were conquered by the Romans. They lived in what is now eastern and central Switzerland (containing the Upper Rhine and Lake Constance), southern Bavaria and Upper Swabia, Vorarlberg, the greater part of Tirol, and part of Lombardy. Today, this area shows a relatively high concentration of G2 compared to the rest of Europe.
The Rhaetians believed their ancestors were Etruscans who had been driven from the plains of the Po River in Italy by invading Gauls (386 BCE). This traditional account is supported by the Rhaetian language, which was closely related to Etruscan.
By the time the Rhaetians first appear in history, they were completely amalgamated with Celtic tribes settled in the same area. In the early sixth century Rhaetia was occupied by the Ostrogoths, and in the ninth century it was integrated into the Frankish polity. Even if Haplogroup G predominated among the early Rhaetians, given this history, it is not surprising that other haplogroups now predominate in the same area.
Sources
The information above was adapted from Whit Athey’s Y Haplogroup G website (now offline) and Spencer Wells’ book, The Journey of Man – A Genetic Odyssey (Random House, 2004).
Information about the Anatolian origin of the Etruscans has been extracted from a number of scientific papers: F. Brisighelli et al., The Etruscan timeline: a recent Anatolian connection, European Journal of Human Genetics (2008); A. Achilli et al., Mitochondrial DNA Variation of Modern Tuscans Supports the Near Eastern Origin of Etruscans, American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 80, no. 4 (2007), pp. 759-768; A. Piazza et al., Origin of the Etruscans: novel clues from the Y chromosome lineages, European Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 15, Supplement 1 (June 2007), p.19 (Abstract of paper read at the 39th European Human Genetics Conference in June 2007); C. Vernesi et al., The Etruscans: A Population-Genetic Study, American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 74 (2004), no. 4 pp. 694-704. And see S. Guimaraes et al., Genealogical discontinuities among Etruscan, Medieval and contemporary Tuscans, Molecular Biology and Evolution, published online on July 1, 2009.
All modern humans descend in the male line from a particular man, nicknamed Genetic Adam, who lived in Africa about 142 thousand years ago (~7,100 generations). This is much older than previously thought. Geneticists discovered this information by mapping mutations on the y chromosomes of modern men.
Before Adam
Archaeological evidence shows modern humans emerged some 200 thousand years ago. Yet, humans exhibit less genetic diversity than expected, far less than our closest primate cousins, the chimpanzees.
The early human population was relatively small. A University of Utah study suggests that 2.1 million years ago the human population was probably about 55.5 thousand people, of whom perhaps 18.5 thousand were ancestors of modern humans. (The Times-Tribune, Mar. 18, 2010).
Genetic Adam
When a yDNA mutation appears in a man, all of his male-line descendants will also carry that marker. If we compile information on a large set of markers, then project them back in time using computer algorithms, we find that the trail of mutations coalesces in a single man who lived some 142 thousand years ago (~7,100 generations) (Cruciani et al. 2011). This date is a little uncertain. The 95% confidence interval is 60 to 142 thousand years ago.
This common ancestor has been dubbed Genetic Adam. He lived in Africa, probably on the plains of east Africa. He might have resembled the Han people who live in south Africa today. The mutation that appeared in Genetic Adam is now carried by every human male on the planet.
The term Genetic Adam is misleading. He was not the first modern human male. His father was undoubtedly fully as human as he was. The mutations in non-functional regions of the y chromosome are “silent” – they don’t do anything. So, none of Genetic Adam’s contemporaries would have thought that there was anything out of the ordinary about him. He was different from his contemporaries only in the sense that his male line descendants have survived down to the present, while those of his contemporaries did not.
There were other men living at the same time, but they did not carry the same mutation and none of the male lines from them survived down to the present.
Genetic Adam is also a misnomer in the sense it does not refer to a fixed individual. As male lines on the edges of the human tree die out, the remaining lines converge on a different man, one who lived more recently.
African Diversity
About 75 thousand years ago (~3,000 generations), one of Genetic Adam’s descendants developed a mutation now called M94. He is the paternal ancestor of the overwhelming majority of people living today. His descendants founded Haplogroups B through T. Only Haplogroup A, which until fairly recently was confined to sub-Saharan Africa, does not carry the M94 mutation. All other modern men are descended in the male line from this man and carry the M94 mutation.
M94 lived on the plains of east Africa. Many of his descendants lived along the coast of northeast Africa.
Near Extinction
Some scientists believe that humans nearly became extinct about 70 thousand years ago (~2,800 generations) when the Toba super-volcano erupted in Indonesia, triggering an environmental catastrophe. According to this theory, the eruption triggered a volcanic winter that lasted 6 to 10 years, and reduced the human population to perhaps 10 thousand, or possibly just 1 thousand, people. (Wikipedia: Toba catastrophe theory).
Eurasian Adam – Out of Africa
About 68.5 thousand years ago (~2,400 generations), one of M94’s descendants developed the M168 mutation. This man is often called Eurasian Adam, because he is the ancestor of everyone outside of Africa (and quite a few people still in Africa). His descendants make up Haplogroups C through T.
Out of Africa (Source: National Geographic)
M168 might have lived in what is now Ethiopia.
About 45 thousand years ago (~1,800 generations), Haplogroup CT split into an African group (Haplogroup E) and an Asian group (Haplogroup F). Increasing ice in the far north dried up the African climate to the extent that at least two different groups of M168’s descendants left Africa in search of adequate food supplies, or perhaps just seeking new lands.
The first wave of his descendants left Africa close to 60 thousand years ago (~2,400 generations). They followed the southern coastline of Asia eastward. Sea level was as much as 400 feet lower than it is now. They and their descendants ended up in southeast Asia, Australia, southern China, and the Pacific Islands. Some of them joined their distant cousins in North America some 10 thousand years ago (~400 generations).
A second wave of M168’s descendants were forced out by a period of drying. They went north and east out of the Sahara area through Egypt into the Arabian peninsula and the Middle East.
M89 – Founder of Macro-Haplogroup F
M168’s descendant M89 lived about 45 thousand years ago (~1,800 generations), probably in modern-day Iraq. He was the founder of macro-haplogroup F. His descendants include all members of Haplogroups G through R. This means he is the ancestor of virtually everyone in Europe and the Middle East, and of the vast majority of Asians and Native Americans.
A large group of M89’s descendants moved up into central Asia above the Caspian Sea. It was very cold there near the edge of the great northern ice pack. Life would have been harsh but food was plentiful. Vast herds of big game thronged the tundra and the grasslands south of the ice pack.
About 40 thousand years ago (~1,600 generations), a new mutation arose in Central Asia, M9, that founded a new Haplogroup K, the ancestor of the Eurasian Haplogroups L through R. His descendants spread over most of Europe, Asia and the Americas. Half of modern Europeans belong to this haplogroup.
Another group of M89’s descendants stayed in or near the Middle East. Some of them might have returned to northeastern Africa. New mutations among them gave rise to the Haplogroups G through J.
(6) About 35 thousand years ago (~1,400 generations), two new groups, R and NO, branched off from K. Haplogroup R moved to western Central Asia. Haplogroup NO moved to eastern Central Asia.
(7) About 30 thousand years ago (~1,200 generations), Haplogroup R split into R1 and R2. Haplogroup R1 moved to the steppe area between the Ural mountains and the Caspian Sea.
(8) About 25 thousand years ago (~1,000 generations), one branch of Haplogroup R1, Haplogroup R1b, reached Iberia and the Atlantic coast. Somewhat later, Haplogroup R1a branched from R1 and became common in the Ukraine.
(9) About 25 thousand years ago (~1,000 generations), the Middle Eastern Haplogroup F sent another branch to Anatolia and further to the Balkans, and a new group emerged, Haplogroup I.
An estimated 80 percent of European men share a common ancestor, who lived as a primitive hunter some 40 thousand years ago (Semino et al., The Genetic Legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in Extant Europeans: A Y Chromosome Perspective, 2000). He was one of the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) people who first migrated to Europe, probably from Central Asia and the Middle East, in two waves of migration beginning about 40 thousand years ago. Their numbers were small and they lived by hunting animals and gathering plant food. They used crudely sharpened stones and fire.
About 24 thousand years ago (~960 generations), the last ice age began. The Paleolithic Europeans retreated to three refuge areas: Spain, the Balkans and the Ukraine, where they lived for hundreds of generations.
About 16 thousand years ago (~640 generations), the glaciers melted. The three groups spread out through Europe. The male-line descendants of the group that lived in Spain are now most common in northwest Europe (Haplogroup R1b), those from the Ukraine are primarily in eastern Europe (Haplogroup R1a), and those from the Balkans (Haplogroup I) are most common in central and northern Europe.
Spread of Agriculture
About 10 thousand years ago (~400 generations), the people of the Fertile Crescent developed agriculture. Before that time all humans were hunter-gatherers. With a more stable food supply, populations could expand rapidly. Farmers began moving out of the Middle East, through the islands and along the shores of the Mediterranean, through Turkey into the Balkans and the Caucasus Mountains.
About 8 thousand years ago (~320 generations), during the Neolithic era (New Stone Age), another wave of migration, this time from the Middle East, brought agriculture to Europe. Early theories suggested that the advancing farmers probably displaced or eliminated the hunter-gatherers of Europe. DNA studies have shown that the spread of agriculture involved the movement of some people into Europe who had not been there before, but the spread of farming was primarily through the adoption of the new technology by the existing Europeans.
Many geneticists currently believe that when Haplogroup G, J and Eb1 are found in Europe, it is often (but not always) a marker for the spread of farmers from the Middle East into Europe. About 20 percent of modern European men have y chromosomes that show they descend from this Neolithic migration.
European Cousins
The mutations M201, M52, M170, and 12f2.1 gave rise to Haplogroups G, H, I, and J. Haplogroup G is concentrated near the the Caucasus mountains. Haplogroup H is largely confined to the Indian subcontinent. Haplogroup I spread up through central Europe and into Scandinavia, where it is common today. Haplogroup J is very common in the Middle East, where many Jews, Arabs, and others belong to it. These four haplogroups probably arose between 20 and 30 thousand years ago, but Haplogroup G might be a bit younger.
